Jump to content

Powered exoskeleton

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Powered armour)
"Battlesuit" redirects here. For the board game, see Battlesuit (game).
"Exosuit" redirects here. For a brand of atmospheric diving suit, see Atmospheric diving suit.
An exhibit of the "Future Soldier" designed by the United States Army

An exoskeleton is a wearable device that augments, enables, assists, or enhances motion, posture, or physical activity through mechanical interaction with (i.e., force applied to) the user’s body.[1]

Other common names for a wearable exoskeleton include exo, exo technology, assistive exoskeleton, and human augmentation exoskeleton. The term exosuit is sometimes used, but typically this refers specifically to a subset of exoskeletons comprised largely of soft materials.[2] The term wearable robot is also sometimes used to refer to an exoskeleton, and this does encompass a subset of exoskeletons; however, not all exoskeletons are robotic in nature. Similarly, some but not all exoskeletons can be categorized as bionic devices.

Exoskeletons are also related to orthoses (also called orthotics). Orthoses are devices such as braces and splints that provide physical support to an injured body part, such as a hand, arm, leg, or foot. The definition of exoskeleton and definition of orthosis are partially overlapping, but there is no formal consensus and there is a bit of a gray area in terms of classifying different devices. Some orthoses, such as motorized orthoses, are generally considered to also be exoskeletons. However, simple orthoses such as braces or splints are generally not considered to be exoskeletons. For some orthoses, experts in the field have differing opinions on whether they are exoskeletons or not.

Exoskeletons are related to, but distinct from, prostheses (also called prosthetics). Prostheses are devices that replace missing biological body parts, such as an arm or a leg. In contrast, exoskeletons assist or enhance existing biological body parts.

Wearable devices or apparel that provide small or negligible amounts of force to the user’s body are not considered to be exoskeletons. For instance, clothing and compression garments would not qualify as exoskeletons, nor would wristwatches or wearable devices that vibrate. Well-established, pre-existing categories of such as shoes or footwear are generally not considered to be exoskeletons; however, gray areas exist, and new devices may be developed that span multiple categories or are difficult to classify.

Purposes

[edit]
Steve Jurvetson with a Hybrid Assistive Limb powered exoskeleton suit, commercially available in Japan

Exoskeletons can serve various purposes related to medical, occupational, or recreational uses and are frequently categorized by their general field of use.

Medical exoskeletons

[edit]

Medical exoskeletons typically serve one or more purposes,[3] such as:

  • To assist movement or posture for a person with a physical disability or neuromotor impairment
  • To rehabilitate a person after an injury or disorder

Medical exoskeletons have been designed to support people with certain types of physical disabilities or neurological impairments including stroke, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, or limb loss.[4] These exoskeletons can target various specific purposes such as to help balance,[5] ambulation,[6] reaching,[7] grasping,[8] coordination,[9] or other functional movements.[10][11] For rehabilitation, an exoskeleton may only be used temporarily during a limited period of recovery, after which they may no longer require the device.[12] A rehabilitation exoskeleton can be designed to assist a person with movement impairment, for instance, to help stabilize movement or suppress tremors.[13] Alternatively, an exoskeleton can be designed to resist movement to enhance physical training or to help restore strength.[14] In this case, the exoskeleton is resisting the user in the near-term in order to assist them in recovering strength or capabilities in the longer-term. In either case, exoskeletons can be used to enhance the rehabilitation process by increasing the therapeutic dose (e.g., via increased repetitions or difficulty), constraining exercises to specific movements, reducing the required number of clinicians or clinician effort to provide therapy, or providing assessment of performance through on-board sensing. For assistance, an exoskeleton may be used chronically, intermittently, or only temporarily. Exoskeleton assistance can also be paired with other technologies or modalities, such as functional electrical stimulation (FES)[15] or epidural electrical stimulation (EES).[16]

Occupational exoskeletons

[edit]

Occupational exoskeletons have primarily been developed and deployed for the purpose of reducing injuries and fatigue in the workplace.[17] However, occupational exoskeletons may serve various purposes related to improving workplace safety or operations.[18] The most common purposes are:

  • To reduce injury risk, such as musculoskeletal disorders due to overexertion or prolonged postures[19][20]
  • To increase worker performance (e.g., productivity, quality, endurance) or operational efficiency[21][22][23][24]
  • To reduce worker turnover or enhance recruitment of new workers by improving worker well-being[25][26]

Military exoskeletons are often viewed as a sub-category of occupational exoskeletons. The term military exoskeleton refers to exoskeletons that are used to support military service members in performing their job duties.[27][28][29] Some military jobs are similar or identical to the equivalent civilian jobs. For example, a military mechanic or logistics worker may experience similar physical demands as a civilian mechanic or logistics worker. However, other jobs are unique to military service, for instance, for tank or artillery crewmembers. Physical demands associated with body armor and load carriage are also often elevated and unique for military relative to civilian jobs. For these reasons, some military exoskeletons have been developed to address military-specific jobs, environments, and challenges.[30][31]

Recreational exoskeletons

[edit]

Recreational exoskeletons serve the purpose of helping people to do or enjoy recreational activities, such as walking, hiking, skiing, or sports.[32][33][34] In this context, an exoskeleton may help a person to do a recreational activity for longer, to do it better, to do it with less strain, pain, or fatigue, or to do a recreational activity that they would otherwise be unable to do without the assistance and support of the exoskeleton. A common goal for recreational exoskeletons is related to healthy aging[35], in other words, to empower people as they age and undergo natural physical decline to remain physically active and to engage in activities they enjoy. In some cases, recreational exoskeletons may be designed to resist movement to increase muscle strength training by making the movement more challenging. Recreational exoskeletons are sometimes also referred to as sports exoskeletons or consumer exoskeletons. However, some occupational and medical exoskeletons can have uses in non-professional, consumer settings so these categories can blur and some devices can fit into multiple exoskeleton categories. Recreational exoskeletons are a more nascent category (relative to medical and occupational exoskeletons) and their purpose and scope may continue to evolve over time.

Exoskeletons for other purposes

[edit]

Exoskeletons have also been designed for other purposes. There are some exoskeletons designed primarily for research or educational purposes, and these are termed research exoskeletons[36][37] and educational exoskeletons[38], respectively. Exoskeletons for assistance or muscle training purposes in space may be termed space exoskeletons[39]. While these are somewhat similar to certain medical or occupational exoskeletons, they may not overlap completely. In some cases, a given exoskeleton may fit within multiple categories. As an emerging technology, exoskeleton categories are not rigidly defined. New categories or sub-categories of exoskeletons are gradually being added and refined over time.

Classification

[edit]
General model to classify the exoskeletons[40]

Categorisation of powered exoskeletons falls into structure, body part focused on, action, power technology, purpose, and application.[40]

Rigid exoskeletons are those whose structural components attached to the user’s body are made with hard materials such as metals, plastics, fibers, etc. Soft exoskeletons, also called exo-suits, are instead made with materials that allow free movement of the structural components, such as textiles.[40]

The action category describes the type of help the exoskeleton gives the user. Active exoskeletons provide “active” aid to the user, from an external source, without the user needing to apply energy. Passive exoskeletons need the user to perform the movement to work, and merely facilitate it. Hybrid systems provide a mix of active and passive. Powered technologies are further separated into electric, hydraulic, and pneumatic actuators.[40]

The exoskeleton’s purpose is divided into "recovery" exoskeletons used for rehabilitation, and "performance" exoskeletons used for assistance. The application categories includes military use, medical use, including recovery exoskeletons, research use, and industrial use.[40]

Design and current limitations

[edit]

Mobility aids are frequently abandoned for lack of usability.[41] Major measures of usability include whether the device reduces the energy consumed during motion, and whether it is safe to use. Some design issues faced by engineers are listed below.

Power supply

[edit]

One of the biggest problems facing engineers and designers of powered exoskeletons is the power supply.[42] This is a particular issue if the exoskeleton is intended to be worn "in the field", i.e. outside a context in which the exoskeleton can be tethered to external power sources via power cables, thus having to rely solely on onboard power supply. Battery packs would require frequent replacement or recharging,[42] and may risk explosion due to thermal runaway.[43] According to Sarcos, the company has solved some of these issues related to battery technology, particularly consumption, reducing the amount of power required to operate its Guardian XO to under 500 watts (0.67 hp) and enabling its batteries to be "hot-swapped" without powering down the unit.[44] Internal combustion engine offer high energy output, but problems include exhaust fumes, waste heat and inability to modulate power smoothly,[45] as well as the periodic need to replenish volatile fuels. Hydrogen cells have been used in some prototypes[46] but also suffer from several safety problems.[47]

Skeleton

[edit]

Early exoskeletons used inexpensive and easy-to-mold materials such as steel and aluminium alloy. However, steel is heavy and the powered exoskeleton must work harder to overcome its own weight, reducing efficiency. Aluminium alloys are lightweight, but fail through fatigue quickly.[48] Fiberglass, carbon fiber and carbon nanotubes have considerably higher strength per weight.[49] "Soft" exoskeletons that attach motors and control devices to flexible clothing are also under development.[50]

Actuators

[edit]
Pneumatic air muscle

Joint actuators also face the challenge of being lightweight, yet powerful. Technologies used include pneumatic activators,[51] hydraulic cylinders,[52] and electronic servomotors.[53] Elastic actuators are being investigated to simulate control of stiffness in human limbs and provide touch perception.[54] The air muscle, a.k.a. braided pneumatic actuator or McKibben air muscle, is also used to enhance tactile feedback.[55]

Joint flexibility

[edit]

The flexibility of human anatomy is a design issue for traditional "hard" robots. Several human joints such as the hips and shoulders are ball and socket joints, with the center of rotation inside the body. Since no two individuals are exactly alike, fully mimicking the degrees of freedom of a joint movement is not possible. Instead, the exoskeleton joint is commonly modeled as a series of hinges with one degree of freedom for each axis of rotations.[41]

Spinal flexibility is another challenge since the spine is effectively a stack of limited-motion ball joints. There is no simple combination of external single-axis hinges that can easily match the full range of motion of the human spine. Because accurate alignment is challenging, devices often include the ability to compensate for misalignment with additional degrees of freedom.[56]

Soft exoskeletons bend with the body and address some of these issues.[57]

Power control and modulation

[edit]

A successful exoskeleton should assist its user, for example by reducing the energy required to perform a task.[41] Individual variations in the nature, range and force of movements make it difficult for a standardized device to provide the appropriate amount of assistance at the right time. Algorithms to tune control parameters to automatically optimize the energy cost of walking are under development.[58][59] Direct feedback between the human nervous system and motorized prosthetics ("neuro-embodied design") has also been implemented in a few high-profile cases.[60]

Adaptation to user size variations

[edit]

Humans exhibit a wide range of physical size differences in both skeletal lengths and limb and torso girth, so exoskeletons must either be adaptable or fitted to individual users. In military applications, it may be possible to address this by requiring the user to be of an approved physical size in order to be issued an exoskeleton. Physical body size restrictions already occur in the military for jobs such as aircraft pilots, due to the problems of fitting seats and controls to very large and very small people.[61] For soft exoskeletons, this is less of a problem.[57]

Health and safety

[edit]

Exoskeletons can reduce the stress of manual labor, they may also pose dangers.[62] The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has called for research to address the potential dangers and benefits of the technology, noting potential new risk factors for workers such as lack of mobility to avoid a falling object, and potential falls due to a shift in center of gravity.[63]

As of 2018, the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration has not prepared any safety standards for exoskeletons. The International Organization for Standardization published a safety standard in 2014, and ASTM International was working on standards to be released beginning in 2019.[62]

Products

[edit]
  • Japet Exoskeleton is a powered lower-back exoskeleton for work and industry based on established passive braces. It is intended to reduce lumbar pressure.[64]
  • Parker Hannifin's Indego Exoskeleton is an FDA-Cleared, electrically powered support system for legs that helps spinal cord injury patients and stroke patients walk.[65][66]
  • ReWalk features powered hip and knee motion to enable those with lower limb disabilities, including paraplegia as a result of spinal cord injury (SCI), to perform self-initiated standing, walking, and stair ascending and descending.[67] ReStore, a simpler system by the same manufacturer, attaches to a single leg to assist with gait retraining, and was approved by the FDA in 2019.[67]
  • Ekso Bionics's EskoGT is a hydraulically powered exoskeleton system allowing paraplegics to stand and walk with crutches or a walker.[68] It was approved by the FDA in 2019.[69]
  • SuitX's Phoenix is a modular, light and cheap exoskeleton, powered by a battery backpack that allows paraplegics to walk at up to 1.8 kilometres per hour (1.1 mph).[70]
  • Cyberdyne's HAL is a wearable robot that comes in multiple configurations.[71] HAL is currently in use in Japanese and US hospitals and was given global safety certification in 2013.[72][73]
  • Honda's Walking Assist Device is a partial exoskeleton to help those with difficulties walking unsupported. It was given pre-market notification by the FDA in 2019.[74]
  • The European Space Agency has developed a series of ergonomic exoskeletons for robotic teleoperation, including the EXARM, X-Arm-2 and SAM exoskeletons. The target application is telemanipulation of astronaut-like robots, operating in a remote harsh environment.[75]
  • In 2018, Spanish exoskeleton provider Gogoa Mobility was the first European company to get a CE approval for their powered lower body HANK exoskeleton for medical use.[76] The CE approval covered the use of HANK for rehabilitation due to Spinal Cord Injury (SCI), Acquired Brain Damage (ABD) & Neurodegenerative Illnesses. In Feb 2020, their knee specific exoskeleton called Belk also received a CE approval.
  • Roam Robotics produces a soft exoskeleton for skiers and snowboarders.[51]
  • Wandercraft produces Atalante, the first powered exoskeleton to allow users to walk hands-free, unlike most powered medical exoskeleton that require the simultaneous use of crutches.[77]
  • Sarcos has unveiled a full-body, powered exoskeleton, the Guardian XO, which can lift up to 200 pounds (91 kg).[78] Their "Alpha" version was demonstrated at the 2020 Consumer Electronics Show with Delta Air Lines.[79]
  • ExoMed's ExoHeaver is electrically powered exoskeleton, designed for Russian nickel and palladium mining and smelting company in 2018. Designed for lifting and holding loads weighing up to 60 kg (130 lb) and collecting information about the environment using sensors. More than 20 exoskeletons have been tested and are used at the enterprise.[80]
  • Comau introduced a passive spring-loaded exoskeleton called the Comau MATE which provides antigravitational support to the user. The exosuit supports the upper arms and spine to help facilitate work and reduce physical fatigue. MATE’s spring-loaded actuation box stores energy through an advanced mechanism during the extension phase, and then returns it to the user during the flexion phase.[81]

Projects on hold/abandoned

[edit]
  • Lockheed Martin's Human Universal Load Carrier (HULC) was abandoned after tests showed that wearing the suit caused users to expend significantly more energy during controlled treadmill walks.[82]
  • The Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX) consisted of mechanical metal leg braces, a power unit, and a backpack-like frame to carry a heavy load.[83] The technology developed for BLEEX led to SuitX's Phoenix.[84]
  • A project from Ghent University, WALL-X was shown in 2013 to reduce the metabolic cost of normal walking. This result was achieved by optimizing the controls based on the study of the biomechanics of the human-exoskeleton interaction.[85]

Fictional depictions

[edit]
Main article: List of films featuring powered exoskeletons

Exoskeletons have been depicted in many films, TV shows, science fiction books, and comics. However, most real-life exoskeletons differ drastically from the images and depictions in popular culture. The science fiction novel Starship Troopers by Robert A. Heinlein (1959) is sometimes credited with introducing the concept of futuristic military armor. Other examples of fictional exoskeletons include Tony Stark's Iron Man suit, the robot exoskeleton used by Ellen Ripley to fight the Xenomorph queen in Aliens, in Warhammer 40,000 the Space Marines, among other factions, are known to use different kinds of Power Armour,[86] the Power Armor used in the Fallout video game franchise and the Exoskeleton from S.T.A.L.K.E.R.[87][88][89] In some cases, these depictions have served as inspiration for exoskeleton designers and inventors. However, popular culture depictions have also led to considerable confusion, myths, and inflated expectations within the public, since many people associate exoskeletons with the make-believe, fantasy devices they encounter in popular culture and they may not have seen or been exposed to real-life exoskeletons. A list of these popular culture references is provided in a separate article entitled List of films featuring powered exoskeletons.

History

[edit]

Late 19th century and early 20th century

[edit]

Wearable devices that fit the modern definition of an exoskeleton were developed in the late 1800s and early 1900s. However, at the time, the term exoskeleton was not common, and the exoskeleton category was not well defined. Thus, many of the exoskeleton-like, predecessor devices were called names like braces, supporters, pedometers, or apparati. These included devices to assist posture, mobility (e.g., walking, running, jumping), physical work (e.g., bending, lifting, sitting, shoveling), and various body parts (e.g., legs, back, arms). These early exoskeleton-like devices spanned a wide range of structures and functions, including rigid and soft exoskeletons, and passive (elastic) and powered (active) exoskeletons. However, from the limited historical records it appears that most of these devices were prototypes or concepts, most were not commercialized, and none achieved wide adoption.

Various exoskeleton-like devices were developed between the 1880s and 1930s to assist with prolonged bending posture and other common agricultural work tasks. These included both rigid exoskeleton-like devices[90][91][92] and soft exosuit-like devices.[93][94] Some of these devices were fully on-body devices and worked by providing assistive forces and torques in parallel with the user’s muscles, while other devices assisted by transmitting forces to the ground, for instance, during seated posture[95] or stooping.[96]

During this same period, there were also exoskeleton-like devices designed to facilitate walking, running, or other locomotor activities. These included both rigid and soft devices, as well as devices that were both passive (elastic) and powered (active). One example of an early passive rigid exoskeleton-like device was an apparatus developed around 1890 by Russian engineer Nicholas Yagin[97]. This device consisted of bow springs connected between the user’s waist and feet, and was intended to use elastic energy storage and return to assist walking, running, or jumping.[97] Yagin developed several other related inventions.[98][99][100] An example of an early powered soft exosuit-like device was an apparatus developed by United States inventor Leslie Kelley around 1917 to augment running.[101] This device was comprised of a backpack-worn steam engine (powered actuator), which assisted the user by controlling and transmitting mechanical power to wires (artificial ligaments) that ran in parallel with the user’s muscles. Various other exoskeleton-like devices were developed to facilitate locomotion[102] or assist people with physical disabilities.[103][104]

Mid 20th century

[edit]

Exoskeleton-like devices continued to be developed throughout the middle of the 20th century. This marked a period of exploration into the possibilities and challenges of wearable assistive technologies for human augmentation and rehabilitation purposes. One exoskeleton prototype, called Hardiman gained notoriety due to its level of sophistication, though it was not commercialized. This period also marked the emergence of one of the first exoskeleton success stories, in the form of wearable camera stabilizers. However, this was a niche solution and there was no broader exoskeleton market at the time, so this technology largely developed and matured as its own category. Even today, camera stabilizers are generally considered their own category and not included as exoskeletons, despite fitting the definition.

In the 1960s, an exoskeleton called Hardiman was co-developed by General Electric and the US Armed Forces. This exoskeleton was powered by hydraulics and electricity and amplified the wearer's strength by a factor of 25, so that lifting 110 kilograms (240 lb) would feel like lifting 4.5 kilograms (10 lb). A feature called force feedback enabled the wearer to feel the forces and objects being manipulated. However, the Hardiman had major limitations, including its 680-kilogram (1,500 lb) weight.[105] The Hardiman was designed as a master-slave system comprised of a set of overlapping exoskeletons: the slave device (outer exoskeleton) followed the motions of the master device (inner exoskeleton), which followed the motion of the human operator.[106] The response time for the slave suit was slow, and control issues caused "violent and uncontrollable motion by the machine" when moving both legs simultaneously. Hardiman's slow walking speed of 0.76 meters per second (2.5 ft/s) further limited practical uses.[107]  

During this time, various other exoskeletons were also being developed,[108] which varied widely in design and characteristics; however, these were also mostly for research and demonstration purposes. There was also exploration into development and use of exoskeletons for clinical populations. For instance, in the 1970s Yugoslavia by a team led by Prof. Miomir Vukobratović developed pneumatically powered and electronically controlled lower limb devices to assist in the rehabilitation of people with paralysis.

In the 1970s, wearable camera stabilizers were developed and popularized. These could be considered to be a type of tool-holding exoskeleton. Wearable camera stabilizers work biomechanically by redirecting some or all the weight of the camera down to the user’s trunk or waist. This load path bypasses, and thereby reduces musculoskeletal loading on, the shoulders and arms of the user. Wearable camera stabilizers could be considered one of the first exoskeleton-like devices that was widely adopted in society and within a specific industry.

Late 20th century

[edit]

In 1985, an engineer at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) proposed an exoskeleton called Pitman, a powered suit of armor for infantrymen.[109] The design included brain-scanning sensors in the helmet and was considered too futuristic; it was never built.[110]

In 1986, an exoskeleton called the Lifesuit was designed by Monty Reed, a US Army Ranger who had broken his back in a parachute accident.[111] While recovering in the hospital, he read Robert Heinlein's science fiction novel Starship Troopers, and Heinlein's description of mobile infantry power suits inspired Reed to design a supportive exoskeleton. In 2001, Reed began working full-time on the project, and in 2005 he wore the 12th prototype in the Saint Patrick's Day Dash foot race in Seattle, Washington.[112] Reed claims to have set the speed record for walking in robot suits by completing the 4.8-kilometre (3 mi) race at an average speed of 4 kilometres per hour (2.5 mph).[113] The Lifesuit prototype 14 can walk 1.6 km (1 mi) on a full charge and lift 92 kg (203 lb) for the wearer.[114]

  • Some exoskeleton models

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Lowe, Brian D.; Billotte, William G.; Peterson, Donald R. (2019). "ASTM F48 Formation and Standards for Industrial Exoskeletons and Exosuits". IISE Transactions on Occupational Ergonomics and Human Factors. 7 (3–4): 230–236. doi:10.1080/24725838.2019.1579769. ISSN 2472-5846. PMC 6604650. PMID 31276081.
  2. ^ Ali, Athar; Fontanari, Vigilio; Schmoelz, Werner; Agrawal, Sunil K. (2021-11-02). "Systematic Review of Back-Support Exoskeletons and Soft Robotic Suits". Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. 9. doi:10.3389/fbioe.2021.765257. ISSN 2296-4185. PMC 8603112. PMID 34805118.
  3. ^ Siviy, Christopher; Baker, Lauren M.; Quinlivan, Brendan T.; Porciuncula, Franchino; Swaminathan, Krithika; Awad, Louis N.; Walsh, Conor J. (April 2023). "Opportunities and challenges in the development of exoskeletons for locomotor assistance". Nature Biomedical Engineering. 7 (4): 456–472. doi:10.1038/s41551-022-00984-1. ISSN 2157-846X.
  4. ^ Plaza, Alberto; Hernandez, Mar; Puyuelo, Gonzalo; Garces, Elena; Garcia, Elena (2023). "Lower-Limb Medical and Rehabilitation Exoskeletons: A Review of the Current Designs". IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering. 16: 278–291. doi:10.1109/RBME.2021.3078001. ISSN 1941-1189. PMID 33961563.
  5. ^ Zhang, Ting; Tran, Minh; Huang, He (February 2018). "Design and Experimental Verification of Hip Exoskeleton With Balance Capacities for Walking Assistance". IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics. 23 (1): 274–285. doi:10.1109/TMECH.2018.2790358. ISSN 1941-014X.
  6. ^ Murray, Spencer A.; Ha, Kevin H.; Hartigan, Clare; Goldfarb, Michael (May 2015). "An assistive control approach for a lower-limb exoskeleton to facilitate recovery of walking following stroke". IEEE transactions on neural systems and rehabilitation engineering: a publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. 23 (3): 441–449. doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2014.2346193. ISSN 1558-0210. PMID 25134084.
  7. ^ Frisoli, Antonio; Procopio, Caterina; Chisari, Carmelo; Creatini, Ilaria; Bonfiglio, Luca; Bergamasco, Massimo; Rossi, Bruno; Carboncini, Maria Chiara (2012-06-09). "Positive effects of robotic exoskeleton training of upper limb reaching movements after stroke". Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 9 (1): 36. doi:10.1186/1743-0003-9-36. ISSN 1743-0003. PMC 3443436. PMID 22681653.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  8. ^ Bützer, Tobias; Lambercy, Olivier; Arata, Jumpei; Gassert, Roger (April 2021). "Fully Wearable Actuated Soft Exoskeleton for Grasping Assistance in Everyday Activities". Soft Robotics. 8 (2): 128–143. doi:10.1089/soro.2019.0135. ISSN 2169-5180. PMID 32552422.
  9. ^ Proietti, Tommaso; Guigon, Emmanuel; Roby-Brami, Agnès; Jarrassé, Nathanaël (2017-06-12). "Modifying upper-limb inter-joint coordination in healthy subjects by training with a robotic exoskeleton". Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 14 (1): 55. doi:10.1186/s12984-017-0254-x. ISSN 1743-0003. PMC 5469138. PMID 28606179.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  10. ^ Lajeunesse, Veronique; and Michaud, François (2016-10-02). "Exoskeletons' design and usefulness evidence according to a systematic review of lower limb exoskeletons used for functional mobility by people with spinal cord injury". Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology. 11 (7): 535–547. doi:10.3109/17483107.2015.1080766. ISSN 1748-3107. PMID 26340538. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Randazzo, Luca; Iturrate, Iñaki; Perdikis, Serafeim; Millán, J. d. R. (January 2018). "mano: A Wearable Hand Exoskeleton for Activities of Daily Living and Neurorehabilitation". IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters. 3 (1): 500–507. doi:10.1109/LRA.2017.2771329. ISSN 2377-3766.
  12. ^ Murray, Spencer A.; Ha, Kevin H.; Hartigan, Clare; Goldfarb, Michael (May 2015). "An Assistive Control Approach for a Lower-Limb Exoskeleton to Facilitate Recovery of Walking Following Stroke". IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering. 23 (3): 441–449. doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2014.2346193. ISSN 1558-0210.
  13. ^ Rocon, E.; Belda-Lois, J. M.; Ruiz, A. F.; Manto, M.; Moreno, J. C.; Pons, J. L. (2007-09). "Design and Validation of a Rehabilitation Robotic Exoskeleton for Tremor Assessment and Suppression". IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering. 15 (3): 367–378. doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2007.903917. ISSN 1558-0210. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Stienen, Arno H. A.; Hekman, Edsko E. G.; Prange, Gerdienke B.; Jannink, Michiel J. A.; Aalsma, Arthur M. M.; van der Helm, Frans C. T.; van der Kooij, Herman (2009-08-31). "Dampace: Design of an Exoskeleton for Force-Coordination Training in Upper-Extremity Rehabilitation". Journal of Medical Devices. 3 (031003). doi:10.1115/1.3191727. ISSN 1932-6181.
  15. ^ Ha, Kevin H.; Murray, Spencer A.; Goldfarb, Michael (April 2016). "An Approach for the Cooperative Control of FES With a Powered Exoskeleton During Level Walking for Persons With Paraplegia". IEEE transactions on neural systems and rehabilitation engineering: a publication of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. 24 (4): 455–466. doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2015.2421052. ISSN 1558-0210. PMID 25915961.
  16. ^ Benabid, Alim Louis; Costecalde, Thomas; Eliseyev, Andrey; Charvet, Guillaume; Verney, Alexandre; Karakas, Serpil; Foerster, Michael; Lambert, Aurélien; Morinière, Boris; Abroug, Neil; Schaeffer, Marie-Caroline; Moly, Alexandre; Sauter-Starace, Fabien; Ratel, David; Moro, Cecile (2019-12-01). "An exoskeleton controlled by an epidural wireless brain–machine interface in a tetraplegic patient: a proof-of-concept demonstration". The Lancet Neurology. 18 (12): 1112–1122. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30321-7. ISSN 1474-4422. PMID 31587955.
  17. ^ "Occupational exoskeletons: wearable robotic devices and preventing work-related musculoskeletal disorders in the workplace of the future | Safety and health at work EU-OSHA". osha.europa.eu. Retrieved 2025-04-07.
  18. ^ Crea, Simona; Beckerle, Philipp; Looze, Michiel De; Pauw, Kevin De; Grazi, Lorenzo; Kermavnar, Tjaša; Masood, Jawad; O’Sullivan, Leonard W.; Pacifico, Ilaria; Rodriguez-Guerrero, Carlos; Vitiello, Nicola; Ristić-Durrant, Danijela; Veneman, Jan (January 2021). "Occupational exoskeletons: A roadmap toward large-scale adoption. Methodology and challenges of bringing exoskeletons to workplaces". Wearable Technologies. 2: e11. doi:10.1017/wtc.2021.11. ISSN 2631-7176.
  19. ^ Kim, Sunwook; Nussbaum, Maury A.; Smets, Marty (March 2022). "Usability, User Acceptance, and Health Outcomes of Arm-Support Exoskeleton Use in Automotive Assembly: An 18-month Field Study". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 64 (3): 202. doi:10.1097/JOM.0000000000002438. ISSN 1076-2752.
  20. ^ Zelik, Karl E.; Nurse, Cameron A.; Schall, Mark C.; Sesek, Richard F.; Marino, Matthew C.; Gallagher, Sean (2022-02-01). "An ergonomic assessment tool for evaluating the effect of back exoskeletons on injury risk". Applied Ergonomics. 99: 103619. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103619. ISSN 0003-6870.
  21. ^ Fournier, Daniel E.; Yung, Marcus; Somasundram, Kumara G.; Du, Bronson B.; Rezvani, Sara; Yazdani, Amin (2023-06-27). "Quality, productivity, and economic implications of exoskeletons for occupational use: A systematic review". PLOS ONE. 18 (6): e0287742. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287742. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 10298758. PMID 37368889.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  22. ^ Ratke, Emma J.; McMaster, Hannah; Vellucci, Chris L.; Larson, Dennis J.; Holmes, Michael W. R.; Beaudette, Shawn M. (2025-03-01). "Ability of a passive back support exoskeleton to mitigate fatigue related adaptations in a complex repetitive lifting task". Journal of Biomechanics. 181: 112553. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2025.112553. ISSN 0021-9290.
  23. ^ Rodzak, K. M.; Slaughter, P. R.; Wolf, D. N.; Ice, C. C.; Fine, S. J.; Zelik, K. E. (January 2024). "Can back exosuits simultaneously increase lifting endurance and reduce musculoskeletal disorder risk?". Wearable Technologies. 5: e17. doi:10.1017/wtc.2024.8. ISSN 2631-7176.
  24. ^ Butler, Terry; Gillette, Jason (2019-01-01). "Exoskeletons: Used as PPE for Injury Prevention". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. ^ Schwerha, Diana J.; McNamara, Nathan; Nussbaum, Maury A.; Kim, Sunwook (2021-03-01). "Adoption potential of occupational exoskeletons in diverse enterprises engaged in manufacturing tasks". International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 82: 103103. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2021.103103. ISSN 0169-8141.
  26. ^ Elprama, Shirley A.; Vanderborght, Bram; Jacobs, An (2022-04-01). "An industrial exoskeleton user acceptance framework based on a literature review of empirical studies". Applied Ergonomics. 100: 103615. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2021.103615. ISSN 0003-6870.
  27. ^ Proud, Jasmine K.; Lai, Daniel T. H.; Mudie, Kurt L.; Carstairs, Greg L.; Billing, Daniel C.; Garofolini, Alessandro; Begg, Rezaul K. (May 2022). "Exoskeleton Application to Military Manual Handling Tasks". Human Factors. 64 (3): 527–554. doi:10.1177/0018720820957467. ISSN 1547-8181. PMID 33203237.
  28. ^ Crowell, Harrison P.; and Boynton, Angela C. (2019-10-02). "Design, Evaluation, and Research Challenges Relevant to Exoskeletons and Exosuits: A 26-Year Perspective From the U.S. Army Research Laboratory". IISE Transactions on Occupational Ergonomics and Human Factors. 7 (3–4): 199–212. doi:10.1080/24725838.2018.1563571. ISSN 2472-5838. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Mudie, Kurt L.; Boynton, Angela C.; Karakolis, Thomas; O'Donovan, Meghan P.; Kanagaki, Gregory B.; Crowell, Harrison P.; Begg, Rezaul K.; LaFiandra, Michael E.; Billing, Daniel C. (November 2018). "Consensus paper on testing and evaluation of military exoskeletons for the dismounted combatant". Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 21 (11): 1154–1161. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2018.05.016. ISSN 1878-1861. PMID 30318056.
  30. ^ Martin, W. Brandon; Boehler, Alexander; Hollander, Kevin W.; Kinney, Darren; Hitt, Joseph K.; Kudva, Jay; Sugar, Thomas G. (January 2022). "Development and testing of the aerial porter exoskeleton". Wearable Technologies. 3: e1. doi:10.1017/wtc.2021.18. ISSN 2631-7176. PMC 10936400. PMID 38486913.
  31. ^ Slaughter, P. R.; Rodzak, K. M.; Fine, S. J.; Ice, C. C.; Wolf, D. N.; Zelik, K. E. (January 2023). "Evaluation of U.S. Army Soldiers wearing a back exosuit during a field training exercise". Wearable Technologies. 4: e20. doi:10.1017/wtc.2023.16. ISSN 2631-7176. PMID 38487775.
  32. ^ Witte, Kirby A.; Fiers, Pieter; Sheets-Singer, Alison L.; Collins, Steven H. (2020-03-25). "Improving the energy economy of human running with powered and unpowered ankle exoskeleton assistance". Science Robotics. 5 (40): eaay9108. doi:10.1126/scirobotics.aay9108. PMID 33022600.
  33. ^ Kim, Jinsoo; Lee, Giuk; Heimgartner, Roman; Arumukhom Revi, Dheepak; Karavas, Nikos; Nathanson, Danielle; Galiana, Ignacio; Eckert-Erdheim, Asa; Murphy, Patrick; Perry, David; Menard, Nicolas; Choe, Dabin Kim; Malcolm, Philippe; Walsh, Conor J. (2019-08-16). "Reducing the metabolic rate of walking and running with a versatile, portable exosuit". Science. 365 (6454): 668–672. Bibcode:2019Sci...365..668K. doi:10.1126/science.aav7536.
  34. ^ "Episciences". mbj.episciences.org. Retrieved 2025-04-08.
  35. ^ Lakmazaheri, Ava; Song, Seungmoon; Vuong, Brian B.; Biskner, Blake; Kado, Deborah M.; Collins, Steven H. (2024-01-02). "Optimizing exoskeleton assistance to improve walking speed and energy economy for older adults". Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation. 21 (1): 1. doi:10.1186/s12984-023-01287-5. ISSN 1743-0003. PMC 10763092. PMID 38167151.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  36. ^ Bryan, Gwendolyn M; Franks, Patrick W; Klein, Stefan C; Peuchen, Robert J; Collins, Steven H (2021-04-01). "A hip–knee–ankle exoskeleton emulator for studying gait assistance". The International Journal of Robotics Research. 40 (4–5): 722–746. doi:10.1177/0278364920961452. ISSN 0278-3649.
  37. ^ Witte, Kirby Ann; Collins, Steven H. (2020-01-01), Rosen, Jacob; Ferguson, Peter Walker (eds.), "Chapter 13 - Design of Lower-Limb Exoskeletons and Emulator Systems", Wearable Robotics, Academic Press, pp. 251–274, ISBN 978-0-12-814659-0, retrieved 2025-04-08
  38. ^ Al-Tashi, Mohammed; Lennartson, Bengt; Ortiz-Catalan, Max; Just, Fabian (2024-05-01). "Classroom-ready open-source educational exoskeleton for biomedical and control engineering". at - Automatisierungstechnik. 72 (5): 460–475. doi:10.1515/auto-2023-0208. ISSN 2196-677X.
  39. ^ Böcker, Jonas; Zange, Jochen; Siedel, Torsten; Fau, Guillaume; Langner, Sebastian; Krueger, Thomas; Rittweger, Jörn. "ATHLETIC: An exoskeleton countermeasure exercise device for resistive and plyometric training in deep-space missions". Experimental Physiology. n/a (n/a). doi:10.1113/EP092263. ISSN 1469-445X.
  40. ^ a b c d e de la Tejera, Javier A.; Bustamante-Bello, Rogelio; Ramirez-Mendoza, Ricardo A.; Izquierdo-Reyes, Javier (24 December 2020). "Systematic Review of Exoskeletons towards a General Categorization Model Proposal". Applied Sciences. 11 (1): 76. doi:10.3390/app11010076. hdl:1721.1/131309. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
  41. ^ a b c Näf, Matthias B.; Junius, Karen; Rossini, Marco; Rodriguez-Guerrero, Carlos; Vanderborght, Bram; Lefeber, Dirk (September 1, 2018). "Misalignment Compensation for Full Human-Exoskeleton Kinematic Compatibility: State of the Art and Evaluation". Applied Mechanics Reviews. 70 (5): 050802. Bibcode:2018ApMRv..70e0802N. doi:10.1115/1.4042523. ISSN 0003-6900.
  42. ^ a b Meeting the Energy Needs of Future Warriors. National Academies Press. 31 August 2004. p. 40. ISBN 9780309165761. Retrieved 18 February 2016.
  43. ^ Liebscher, Alysha; Gayman, Gary (December 26, 2018). "Preventing Thermal Runaway in Electric Vehicle Batteries". Machine Design. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  44. ^ Freedberg, Sydney J Jr. (March 18, 2019). "SOCOM Tests Sarcos Exoskeleton (No, It Isn't 'Iron Man')". Breaking Defense. Retrieved March 10, 2021.
  45. ^ Yellow Magpie (May 1, 2013). "Exoskeleton Suit Problems That Need To Be Overcome". Yellow Magpie. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  46. ^ Kantola, Kevin (January 26, 2010). "HULC Robotic Exoskeleton Powered by Hydrogen Fuel Cell". Hydrogen Cars Now. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  47. ^ "Hydrogen Storage Challenges". Energy.gov. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
  48. ^ Frumento, Christopher; Messier, Ethan; Montero, Victor (2010-03-02). "History and Future of Rehabilitation Robotics" (PDF). Worchetser Polytechnic Institute. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
  49. ^ Kerns, Jeff (January 8, 2015). "The Rise of the Exoskeletons". Machine Design. Retrieved July 6, 2019.
  50. ^ Heater, Brian (July 18, 2017). "ReWalk Robotics shows off a soft exosuit designed to bring mobility to stroke patients". TechCrunch. Retrieved July 6, 2019.
  51. ^ a b Ackerman, Evan (March 6, 2018). "Roam Robotics Announces $2500 Soft Exoskeleton For Skiers and Snowboarders". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved July 6, 2019.
  52. ^ "Military exoskeletons uncovered: Ironman suits a concrete possibility". Army Technology. January 29, 2012. Retrieved July 6, 2019.
  53. ^ Ferris, Daniel P.; Schlink, Bryan R.; Young, Aaron J. (2019-01-01), "Robotics: Exoskeletons", in Narayan, Roger (ed.), Encyclopedia of Biomedical Engineering, Elsevier, pp. 645–651, ISBN 9780128051443
  54. ^ Siegel, R. P. (April 8, 2019). "Robotic Fingers Are Learning How to Feel". Design News. Retrieved July 6, 2019.
  55. ^ "Glove powered by soft robotics to interact with virtual reality environments". ScienceDaily. May 30, 2017. Retrieved July 6, 2019.
  56. ^ Näf, Matthias B.; Koopman, Axel S.; Baltrusch, Saskia; Rodriguez-Guerrero, Carlos; Vanderborght, Bram; Lefeber, Dirk (June 21, 2018). "Passive Back Support Exoskeleton Improves Range of Motion Using Flexible Beams". Frontiers in Robotics and AI. 5: 72. doi:10.3389/frobt.2018.00072. ISSN 2296-9144. PMC 7805753. PMID 33500951.
  57. ^ a b Davis, Steve (June 26, 2016). "Forget Iron Man: skintight suits are the future of robotic exoskeletons". The Conversation. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
  58. ^ Collins, Steve (June 22, 2017). "Exoskeletons Don't Come One-Size-Fits-All ... Yet". Wired. Retrieved July 8, 2019.
  59. ^ Arbor, Ann (June 5, 2019). "Open-source bionic leg: First-of-its-kind platform aims to rapidly advance prosthetics". University of Michigan News. Retrieved July 8, 2019.
  60. ^ Wakefield, Jane (July 8, 2018). "Exoskeletons promise superhuman powers". BBC. Retrieved July 8, 2019.
  61. ^ Cote, David O.; Schopper, Aaron W. (1984-07-01). "Anthropometric Cockpit Compatibility Assessment of US Army Aircraft for Large and Small Personnel Wearing a Cold Weather, Armored Vest, Chemical Defense Protective Clothing Configuration" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 2, 2016. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
  62. ^ a b Ferguson, Alan (September 23, 2018). "Exoskeletons and injury prevention". Safety+Health Magazine. Retrieved October 19, 2018.
  63. ^ Zingman, Alissa; Earnest, G. Scott; Lowe, Brian D.; Branche, Christine M. (June 15, 2017). "Exoskeletons in Construction: Will they reduce or create hazards?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved July 8, 2017.
  64. ^ Moulart, Mélissa; Olivier, Nicolas; Giovanelli, Yonnel; Marin, Frédéric (1 November 2022). "Subjective assessment of a lumbar exoskeleton's impact on lower back pain in a real work situation". Heliyon. 8 (11): e11420. Bibcode:2022Heliy...811420M. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11420. ISSN 2405-8440. PMC 9678677. PMID 36425419. S2CID 253449651.
  65. ^ Alexander, Dan (15 April 2015). "Innovation Factory: How Parker Hannifin Pumps Out Breakthrough Products". Forbes. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
  66. ^ Freeman, Danny (July 1, 2019). "Exoskeleton Device Donated to San Diego VA Will Help Rehabbing Vets". NBC 7 San Diego. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  67. ^ a b Fanning, Paul (October 11, 2012). "Bionic exoskeleton could transform lives of paraplegics". Eureka!. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  68. ^ Jacobs, Melissa (May 2019). "Through the Help of a Robotic Exoskeleton, a Collegeville Man Gets a Chance to Walk Again". Main Line Today. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  69. ^ Strickland, Eliza (September 30, 2016). "Demo: The Ekso GT Robotic Exoskeleton for Paraplegics and Stroke Patients". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
  70. ^ Brewster, Signe (February 1, 2016). "This $40,000 Robotic Exoskeleton Lets the Paralyzed Walk". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
  71. ^ Maloney, Dan (January 28, 2019). "The Cyborgs Among Us: Exoskeletons Go Mainstream". Hackaday. Retrieved July 7, 2019.
  72. ^ Osbun, Ashley (February 8, 2019). "Patients Walk Again with the HAL Exoskeleton". Electronic Component News. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  73. ^ "Japan's Robot Suit Gets Global Safety Certificate". IndustryWeek. Agence France-Presse. 27 February 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
  74. ^ Davies, Chris (January 10, 2019). "Honda's exoskeleton is one (assisted) step closer to launch". SlashGear. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  75. ^ "The ESA Exoskeleton". European Space Agency. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  76. ^ "Gogoa Mobility Robots announces CE Mark Approval for HANK Exoskeleton". Business Insider. 22 October 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2020.
  77. ^ Dent, Steve (27 September 2017). "Wandercraft's exoskeleton was made to help paraplegics walk". Engadget. Retrieved 4 March 2020.
  78. ^ Salter, Jim (22 January 2020). "Sarcos offers fully mobile, insanely strong industrial exoskeletons". Ars Technica. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
  79. ^ German, Kent; Collins, Katie (7 January 2020). "Delta reveals exoskeletons, free Wi-Fi and a binge button at CES 2020". CNET. Retrieved 6 April 2021.
  80. ^ "«Норникель» выпустит интеллектуальную версию экзоскелета - Норникель". www.nornickel.ru. Retrieved 2022-10-06.
  81. ^ "Comau MATE". Comau. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
  82. ^ Cornwall, Warren (October 15, 2015). "Feature: Can we build an 'Iron Man' suit that gives soldiers a robotic boost?". American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  83. ^ Yang, Sarah (March 3, 2004). "UC Berkeley researchers developing robotic exoskeleton that can enhance human strength and endurance". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
  84. ^ Affairs, Public; Berkeley, U. C. (February 4, 2016). "UC Berkeley exoskeleton helps the paralyzed to walk". University of California. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  85. ^ Malcolm, Philippe; Derave, Wim; Galle, Samuel; De Clercq, Dirk; Aegerter, Christof Markus (13 February 2013). "A Simple Exoskeleton That Assists Plantarflexion Can Reduce the Metabolic Cost of Human Walking". PLOS ONE. 8 (2): e56137. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...856137M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056137. PMC 3571952. PMID 23418524.
  86. ^ Gonzalez, Oscar (2019-09-25). "Fallout Power Armor helmet recalled due to mold". CNET. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
  87. ^ Liptak, Andrew (December 10, 2017). "18 suits of power armor from science fiction you don't want to meet on the battlefield". The Verge.
  88. ^ Matulef, Jeffrey (2016-01-23). "Fallout 4 14.5 inch power armour figurine costs £279". Eurogamer. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
  89. ^ Machkovech, Sam (2018-11-13). "We unbox the $200 'power armor' Fallout 76 version so you don't have to". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
  90. ^ US443113A, "Spring body-brace", issued 1890-12-23 
  91. ^ US1202851A, Kelly, Robert Emmett, "Back-brace", issued 1916-10-31 
  92. ^ US703477A, Russell, Manning W., "Body-brace", issued 1902-07-01 
  93. ^ US401223A, "Brace for back and legs", issued 1889-04-09 
  94. ^ US406663A, "Gardener s and cotton-picker s brace", issued 1889-07-09 
  95. ^ US759809A, Farley, John C., "Cotton, berry, or vegetable picking or dairy stool", issued 1904-05-10 
  96. ^ US1417250A, Emmett, Kelly Robert, "Back brace", issued 1922-05-23 
  97. ^ a b US420179A, "Apparatus for facilitating walking", issued 1890-01-28 
  98. ^ US440684A, "Apparatus for facilitating walking", issued 1890-11-18 
  99. ^ US420178A, "running", issued 1890-01-28 
  100. ^ US406328A, "Peters", issued 1889-07-02 
  101. ^ US1308675A, Kelley, Leslie C., "Pedomotor", issued 1919-07-01 
  102. ^ US337146A, Gluecksmann, Joseph, "Spring shoe", issued 1886-03-02 
  103. ^ US1043648A, Weaver, Edgar Stanley, "Invalid's body-support", issued 1912-11-05 
  104. ^ US44499A, "Improvement in limb-supporters", issued 1864-10-04 
  105. ^ "Final Report On Hardiman I Prototype For Machine Augmentation Of Human Strength And Endurance" (PDF). Defense Technical Information Center. August 30, 1971. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 6, 2019. Retrieved July 5, 2019.
  106. ^ Kazerooni, H.; Chu, Andrew; Steger, Ryan (2007-01-01). "That Which Does Not Stabilize, Will Only Make Us Stronger". The International Journal of Robotics Research. 26 (1): 75–89. doi:10.1177/0278364907074472. ISSN 0278-3649.
  107. ^ Bellis, Mary. "Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
  108. ^ US3449769A, Mizen, Neil J., "Powered exoskeletal apparatus for amplifying human strength in response to normal body movements", issued 1969-06-17 
  109. ^ Hecht, Jeff (1986-09-25). Armour-suited warriors of the future. Issue 1527: New Scientist. p. 31.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  110. ^ Pope, Gregory T. (December 1, 1992). "Power Suits". Discover Magazine. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
  111. ^ "Giving the Gift of Walking – a 501 C3 nonprofit". They Shall Walk. 2013-01-24. Retrieved 2016-02-20.
  112. ^ Richman, Dan (March 11, 2005). "Man's dream is that Lifesuit will help paralyzed walk again". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
  113. ^ Reed, Monty K. (January 21, 2011). "Paralyzed Man Walks Again: Thanks to LIFESUIT prototype". They Shall Walk. Retrieved July 4, 2019.
  114. ^ Monty K Reed (October 10, 2014). "LIFESUIT Exoskeleton Gives the Gift of Walking so They Shall Walk". IEEE Global Humanitarian Technology Conference (GHTC 2014). IEEE. pp. 382–385. doi:10.1109/GHTC.2014.6970309. ISBN 9781479971930. S2CID 35922757.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Powered_exoskeleton&oldid=1284521761"